Read and comment on the following text, with curious facts about the importance of the Count of Aranda in the organisation of the Spanish army. Observe how some of the ideas of this enlightened Aragonese has survived to the present day.

The 10th Count of Aranda, born in Siétamo in 1719, which is now three centuries ago, was a politician, diplomat, great agricultural landowner, industrial entrepreneur, scholar and polyglot, patron and philanthropist. But, above all, he was and felt himself to be a military man. Probably one of the greatest frustrations of his life was that the Crown did not allow him to act as a competent war chief, which he was, on numerous occasions. So much so that he even abandoned his innate arrogance to beg His Catholic Majesty to agree to entrust him with some campaigns. He rarely succeeded. Surprisingly, one might say, because his actions were successes of organisation and demonstrations of right understanding of the often complicated circumstances of war.

At the age of 17, when he was using the title of Duke of Almazán – a secondary title in his family – he ran away without permission from the Italian Jesuit school where he was being educated – his father, the 9th Count, had a military command in Italy – and enlisted in the Spanish army in Italy. A high-born nobleman with aptitude had a clear path into the military. He immediately became captain of the grenadiers – a distinguished and well-trained troop, which was required to have special conditions of strength, presence, agility and honesty – in the regiment commanded and supported by his father. Incidentally, that unit still exists: it was then called Castilla and today it is called the King’s Immemorial No. 1. Its origins date back to the 13th century and, logically, it heads the list of the current Spanish Infantry regiments.

He was immediately (1740) appointed colonel of Infantry by Philip V, which qualified him to take charge of a regiment. On 8 February 1743 he took part in a bloody battle in the War of the Austrian Succession, a conflagration between great powers fought on three continents, in which Prussia, Spain and France fought against Austria, Russia and England. In the Lombard village of Campo Santo he had a severe, almost lethal ordeal. He lay inert, apparently dead among corpses, until he was found the next day. In addition to a convalescence that did not deter him from returning to battle, his courage and further wounds suffered in subsequent battles earned him promotion to brigadier.

But as an artilleryman – a technically demanding branch of warfare with a select staff – by training and vocation, and with proven courage in combat, he was hardly able to demonstrate his recognised abilities in logistical organisation and command of operations. An exception was a Spanish-French war against Portugal and England (1762), in which he had to replace, after months of fighting, an incompetent and decrepit commander, changing the course of the campaign for the better.

Defence policy

Aranda was a remarkable manager of resources in general, and of military resources in particular. As an ambassador with vast international experience, he knew the value of a country’s military capacity. He wrote against enemy propaganda that misrepresented the size and capacity of Spanish troops, and angrily replied to a libel that assigned the Crown three regiments of Infantry when there were thirty-two, not counting those in America, “as well disciplined as those of the army of Europe”. He knew that ridiculing this power damaged Spanish policy, which was to support the American rebels, seek the recovery of Gibraltar and favour Spain’s vast lands in North America.

Charles III, aware of the shortcomings of his army, formed a commission headed by a captain general. Work included the drafting of new ordinances, but was interrupted. Aranda had been captain general since 1763 and, in 1767, the king commissioned him to take up the task again, which he completed successfully. The quality of the text made it last until Juan Carlos I commissioned General Gutiérrez Mellado to renew it in 1978. The text was revised in 2007, and an example of its success is the paragraph defining the figure of the corporal:

As the soldier’s or sailor’s most immediate boss, he will make himself loved and respected by him; he will never conceal from him any lack of subordination; he will instil in him a love of service and great accuracy in the performance of his duties; he will be firm in command, gracious in what he can and will be restrained in his attitude and words even when sanctioning or reprimanding.

Compare the reader with the 1767 text:

As the soldier’s most immediate commander, he will make himself loved and respected by the soldier, he will never conceal from him the faults of subordination. He will instil in those of his squadron a love of their trade and a great deal of accuracy in the performance of their duties. He will be firm in command, gracious in what he can, he will punish without anger and will be measured in his words, even when he reproaches.

An astonishing coincidence, especially considering that, in the old text, the king spoke in the first person. Even so, hardly anything had to be changed, such was his clever conception. Aranda, as on other occasions, had made up for the deficiencies with tireless zeal.

(Source: https://www.heraldo.es/noticias/opinion/2019/08/18/aranda-militar-1330191.html?autoref=true Aranda Militar by Guillermo Fatás)

Look up information and explain what this form of government consists of.

Which European monarchs are considered enlightened in the 18th century?

The image illustrates the problems caused by some of the reforms carried out on traditional dress as a result of Carlos III’s reformism, in this case the shortening of the cloaks and the sewing on of the hat brims.

Were these clothing reforms the only causes of the so-called Motín de Esquilache, what other events provoked the revolts throughout the country? Find out on the internet what the Bread Riot of Saragossa consisted of, when did it take place, why, how did it end, and do you think it is related to the Esquilache Riot?

After the Esquilache Mutiny (1766), Charles III summoned the Count of Aranda to Madrid and appointed him governor of the Council of Castile, a position from which he initiated the process that would end with the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, under the accusation of acting against the king and organising mutinies.

Why do you think the Jesuits were actually expelled from the country? Who controlled secondary and higher education in Spain at the beginning of the 18th century? What were the consequences of this control? Were the Jesuits expelled only from Spain or also from other countries? What were the consequences for the Spanish dominions in America? Find out on the internet what the Jesuit reductions in Paraguay were and what happened to them after the expulsion of the Jesuits.

During his seven years as head of the Council of Castile, he established a reformist policy based on the principles of the Enlightenment, which won the praise of Voltaire himself.
He undertook many other tasks of the most varied characteristics: he enacted laws in favour of mining, shipping and trade; he promoted the urbanisation of Madrid (division into neighbourhoods, construction of the Paseo del Prado) and other large cities, and organised balls and other entertainments; he made the numerous unemployed clergymen leave the capital or those who were away from their place of residence; he created centres of culture with free education and improved the universities, placing them under State control and providing them with new study plans…

What actions in line with Enlightenment thinking did Aranda take as head of the Council of Castile? Who was Voltaire?

The intrigues of his enemies and the enmity of the king led to his downfall in 1773 and his being sent to Paris as a diplomat in order to remove him from the Court. However, it was an important post, and from it he dealt with Spanish foreign policy, especially the Spanish dominions in America.

Read Arturo Pérez Reverte’s novel Good Men: What role does the Count of Aranda play in it? What do you know about the Encyclopaedia, which was published in France in the 18th century? What consequences did its publication have? Why do you think some people thought it was opposed to the Bible?

In his biography we read that the Conde de Aranda travelled throughout his life all over Europe. During his childhood and early youth he travelled around Italy with his father. Later, between 1748 and 1755 he made an instructive journey through France and Central Europe, which allowed him to observe the advances of the Enlightenment and to have a modern view of the army, industries, education, etc. Subsequently, he was ambassador to several countries: Portugal, Poland and France.

Connect the Conde of Aranda’s travels with his activities.

1-d, 2-f, 3-a, 4-e, 5-b, 6-c

It links the kings with the positions held (and episodes experienced) by the Conde de Aranda with each of them.